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Paragraph writing
ParagraphsA paragraph is a group of sentences that work together in unity to explain an idea. A paragraph is a group of sentences that work to develop a unit of thought.A paragraph is a selection of sentence which is related because they are all talking about the same thing, or are dealing with a single topic.Paragraphing permits you to subdivide material into parts and arrange those parts into a unified whole that effectively communicates its message.Paragraphs can be classified as:1. TopicalA topical paragraph is basically a paragraph made up of a group of sentences arranged around one main idea, or one topic. This is the type of paragraph you are most familiar with. Topical paragraphs are probably the only type most student think of as a paragraph. They are also called developmental paragraphs or body paragraphs. They are usually found after the introductory paragraph and before the concluding paragraph.Topical paragraphs consist of a statement of a main idea and specific, logical support for that main idea.Characteristics of a topical Paragraphi) Must have a topic sentence which should appear early in the first few lines of the paragraph preferably the 1st, 2nd or3rd line. The topic sentence tells you what the paragraph is about. Because there's only one topic developed in each paragraph, there should only ever be one topic sentence. The topic sentence of a paragraph is developed, or built on, by the addition of supporting information and details.ii) Unityiii) Coherence iv)Grammaticalv) Order (Direction of Movement)2. Special: Introductory, concluding and transitoryIntroductionsIntroductions or introductory paragraphs perform very important functions. First, they must attract the reader, influencing him/her to read the remainder of the essay. Second, they must not only introduce readers to the essay topic but they must also limit that topic and identify the writer's attitude toward the topic. Finally, they must provide readers with information regarding what is to be expected within the remainder of the essay.Every paper you write should have a main point, a main idea, or central message. The argument(s) you make in your paper should reflect this main idea. The sentence that captures your position on this main idea is what we call a thesis statement. The thesis statement comes in the introductory paragraph and must be concise and well-written.A thesis statement must come early in your essay, e.g. in the introduction. This will enable your reader to:· Establish your position and· Give your reader a sense of direction.Your thesis statement should be· clear· specific· Short· In line with your argument· Must indicate your positionTypes of introduction Paragraphs1. The introduction must be a road map for the rest of your essay2. Anecdotal3. Regular Triangular4. Inverted Triangle5. Summary6. A wise word7. Provoking question8. Corrective introduction9. Historical ReviewConcluding ParagraphThis should be the last paragraph in the essay. Its purpose is to bring the essay to a graceful end. The concluding paragraph gives the writer one final chance to leave a lasting impression on the reader.Ways of writing a concluding paragraph:· A brief summary of the paper's main points.· Restate the main idea of your essay, or your thesis statement· A provocative question.· A quotation.· Evoke a vivid image.· Call for some sort of action.· End with a warning.· Universalize (compare to other situations).· Suggest results or consequences.It is important to have a strong conclusion, since this is the last chance you have to make an impression on your reader. The goal of your conclusion isn’t to introduce any new ideas, but to sum up everything you’ve written. Specifically, your conclusion should accomplish three major goals:Transitional paragraphThe transitional paragraph marks a transition in the paper from one section to another, or from one thought to another, one sub-topic to another. It indicates to the reader either that there will be a change in idea or topic or that there will be a movement from a broad topic to a specific one. These types of paragraphs usually are small and consist of one double or multiple sentences which begins with a connector or a gerundive.
Mousumi Manna
Structure of Presentation
Structuring Your PresentationThis is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear to both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a flipchart, whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify important points and aid understanding?NB: Do not use too many slides/points.Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline.Different authors advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has their merits (Hartley and Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.i) Introduction:Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,• providing a relevant and interesting fact,• giving an anecdote,• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,• telling them why they need to know the information,• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your mainobjective. It can also be helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with it.ii) The Main Body:Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you have decided on the key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you. This sequence may take various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-solution based, simple-complex based etc. (Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.iii) Conclusion:There are various ways of concluding a presentation including• changing the pace,• using a new visual aid,• summarizing your main points,• drawing the conclusion and its importance,• making recommendations,• asking for questions,• getting feedback,• asking for or recommending particular actions,• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close; eg. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc.Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics detailed above. Research has long since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing parts of a presentation over the detail in the middle.
Planning your Presentation
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference. A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey. To be an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.Planning your PresentationIt can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in giving the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.(Objective is a short statement which tells what you plan to achieve. For example, you may plan that)Try to complete the following sentence:‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will be able to…..i) Explain the methods of preventing HIV/AIDS.’ii) See their role in interdisciplinary learning more clearly,b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;--to inform, persuade, motivate or change things.-What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this. Find out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so that you know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to have any preconceptions or misconceptions about the subject that you need to address and put right? How might your audience use what you have to say?d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be available. Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of seating arrangements), and other facilities.e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I need?g) Structure your talk.
SQ4R method for effective reading
The SQ4R Method of reading effectivelySQ4R is a flexible reading strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the reading process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the purpose for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R) actively, searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they summarize WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through REVIEW (4R) activities. Two general learning components must be addressed as you begin the reading process and the SQ4R method will activate them:First, place the reading in CONTEXT. What is the reading about and do you have any prior knowledge about this subject to help you extract the meaning that you are looking for? The SURVEY and SYSTEMATIC reading puts this process into motion. You get an overview that will "jog your memory" as you search for prior knowledge on the subject. Ask questions about what you don't know. Make the questions simple and general if you don't have much prior knowledge and more specific if this is an area of study that is familiar to you. Using these questions will GUIDE YOUR SPEED AND COMPREHENSION as you attempt to answer them.REMEMBER, THE STUDENT THAT IS ENGAGED IN READING IS MOTIVATED, STRATEGIC, KNOWLEDGEABLE, AND SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE.How to Use SQ4R1. Survey what you are about to read• Systematic Reading• Think about the title: What do you know about this subject?• What do I want to know?• Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs.• Look at illustrations and graphic aids.• Read the first paragraph.• Read the last paragraph or summary.2. QuestionTurn the title and sub-titles into wh-element question. This becomes the major purpose for your reading.• Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey.• Turn headings into questions.• Turn subheadings, illustrations, and graphic aids into questions.• Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine the meaning.3. Read Actively• Read to search for answers to the questions set.• Respond to objectives and use context clues for unfamiliar words.• React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable statements by generating additional questions.4. Recite• Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read.• Recite answers to the questions aloud or in writing.• Reread text for unanswered questions.5. wRite• Make "maps" for yourself.• Reduce the information• Reread or skim to locate and prove your points.• Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form.• Always read/question/recite before marking or taking down notes.• Check yourself against the text. Correct and add to your answer.6. Review• Answer the major purpose questions.• Look over answers and all parts of the chapter to organize the information.• Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic organizer (concept map) that depicts the main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a summary,• You can also summarize by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of how this material has changed your perceptions or applies to your life.
Models of Communication
MODELS OF COMMUNICATIONThe purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent of facilitating its understanding. Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of the communication process:Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly different perspective on the communication process.Linear ModelThe linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948)The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages.Interactive ModelSchramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.Transactional ModelThe transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.There are three implications in the transactional model:i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well.ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source.iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self- esteem.Transactional model of communication takes into account “noise” or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously.
Elements of Communication : How to be a good communicator
How to be a good communicatorTo be a good communicator, one needs to:a) Express own reflections and ideas clearlyb) Develop relationshipsc) Provide feedback (answers, reacts)d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc.e) Respect attitudes and opinions of othersf) Be tolerant to different customs and culturesg) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view.j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated.k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment.l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect.n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate.o) Follow through on your commitments.p) Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without becoming negative.Elements of CommunicationThere are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of the occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in different models which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communication works. The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the sender, the receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that necessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or the urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more the need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder.Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words.Encoder is the person who translates his/her thoughts into meaningful words. ReceiverThe receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to communication as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded message. It can also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in understanding the message in its holistic sense.Noise/ BarriersAnything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise. Barriers to communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or failure of the communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as blocks to the desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very multidimensional in nature. Noise can be internal or external.a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger, stress, e.t.cb) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting, siren from an ambulance e.t.c.MessageThe message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.ChannelThe message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels for example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like a book, letter or magazine.Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book, is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communicators word written communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication include its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the message using editing and special effects.FeedbackThe last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process breaks down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take.A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows:The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent..In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best possible manner.This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides signs that can be referred to as non-verbal language.The message will go through a channel, a means of communication such as e-mail, face to face or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc.The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background, and language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same as the sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger.
Basic Computer Knowledge
Basic of Computer: Computers are now affecting every sphere of human activity and bringing about many changes in industry government education medicine scientific research la social sciences and even in arts like music and painting.They are presently used among other applications,to Design buildings,bridges and machines,Control space vehicles,Assit in railway reservation,Control inventories to minimize material cost, Grade examinations and process results,Aid in teaching,Systematically store and quickly retrieve data on land records,Play games like chess and vedio games.In a model of computer in which different units input unit take the data from the user and store in memory unit cpu unit is process the data and produce output to user.Computers features have to process instructions very simply and fastly add,subtract,read a character write a character compare numbers characters etc.Most of the instructions less than millionth of second.Instructions are carried out without any mistakes.Computer is solve the problems is analyzed.The method is used to solve the problems is broken down into a seqence of elementary tasks.The computer program fed to the computer.The computer processing unit interprets the instrucion in program,executes them and sends the results to output unit.Flowchart having obtained algorithm for soving the problem,we express the algorithm in a pictorial form called a flowchart.A program is to express the flowchart in a more precise and concise notation called a programming language.Working of computer will asuume that is first read by input unitr and stored in the computer's memory.The data process namely as set of papers each with aroll number and marks are queued up at the input unit in the order in which they would be used by the flowcharts.Storing program in memory also makes the operation of computer automatic.
Type of costs in cost accounting
cost accountingAns:Cost accounting is an accounting process that measures and analyzes the costs associated with products, production, and projects, so that correct amounts are reported on a company's financial statements. Cost accounting aids in decision-making processes by allowing a company to calculate, evaluate, and monitor its costs.Below are some of the types of costs used in cost accounting:1. Direct Costs Direct costs are related to producing a good or service. A direct cost includes materials, labor, expense, or distribution cost associated with producing a product. It can be easily traced to a product, department or project. For example, Ford Motor Company manufactures cars and trucks. A plant worker spends eight hours building a car. The direct costs associated with the car are the wages paid to the worker and the parts used to build the car.2. Indirect CostsIndirect costs, on the other hand, are expenses unrelated to producing a good or service. An indirect cost cannot be easily traced to a product, department, activity or project. For example, with Ford Motor Company the direct costs associated with each vehicle include tires and steel. However, the electricity used to power the plant is considered an indirect cost because the electricity is used for all the products made in the plant. No one product can be traced back to the electric bill.3. Fixed CostsFixed costs do not vary with the number of goods or services a company produces. For example, suppose a company leases a machine for production for two years. The company has to pay Rs. 2,000 per month to cover the cost of the lease. The lease payment is considered a fixed cost as it remains unchanged.4. Variable CostsVariable costs fluctuate as the level of production output changes, contrary to a fixed cost. This type of cost varies depending on the number of products a company produces. A variable cost increases as the production volume increases, and it falls as the production volume decreases. For example, a toy manufacturer must package its toys before shipping products out to stores. This is considered a type of variable cost because, as the manufacturer produces more toys, its packaging costs increase. However, if the toy manufacturer's production level is decreasing, the variable cost associated with the packaging decreases5. Operating CostsOperating costs are expenses associated with day-to-day business activities but are not traced back to one product. Operating costs can be variable or fixed. Examples of operating costs, which are more commonly called operating expenses, include rent and utilities for a manufacturing plant. Operating costs are day-to-day expenses, but are not classified as costs of producing the products. Investors can calculate a company's operating expense ratio, which shows how efficient a company is in using their costs to generate sales.6. Opportunity CostOpportunity cost is the benefit given up when one decision is made over another. In other words, an opportunity cost represents an alternative given up when a decision is made. This cost is, therefore, most relevant for two mutually exclusive events. In investing, it's the difference in return between a chosen investment and one that is passed up. For companies, opportunity costs do not show up in the financial statements but are useful in planning by management. For example, if a company decides to buy a new piece of manufacturing equipment rather than lease it. The opportunity cost would be the difference between the cost of the cash outlay for the equipment and the improved productivity versus how much money could have been saved had the money been used to pay down debt.7. Sunk CostsSunk costs are historical costs that have already been incurred and will not make any difference in the current decisions by management. Sunk costs are those costs that a company has committed to and are unavoidable or unrecoverable costs. Sunk costs (past costs) are excluded from future business decisions because the costs will be the same regardless of the outcome of a decision.8. Controllable CostsControllable costs are expenses managers has control over and have the power to increase or decrease. For example, deciding on how supplies are ordered or the payroll for a manufacturing company would be controllable, but not necessarily avoidable.
what is Practical,Normal ,Maximum ,Actual ,Idle capacity ? capacity of a firm in details
Practical Capacity :It refers to the production capacity of a firm taking into consideration various internal and external factors within which the firm operates .Normal capacity :It refers to the production capacity of a firm at which the firm can operate in normal situationMaximum capacity :It refers to the capacity at which the firm can operate using all the factors of production to fullest extent . in the capacity beyond which the firm can't produce more . A firm can't operate at this capacity for a long period .It causes damage to machine .In emergent situation this capacity is used .Actual capacity : It refers to the production capacity of a firm at which the firm producing at present .It may any capacity from start to maximum .Usually the firm operate at normal capacity .Idle capacity :It refers to the capacity which remains idle in other word the capacity which remains unused .The reasons for such idle capacity is shortage of material , machine brokedown , power failure , waiting for instruction etc .Idle capacity = Normal capacity -Actual capacity