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Knowledge in Metaphysics
Lasers
Laser's in one of the topics and sub topics in the branch of physics such as Engineering Physics and Applied Physics. Not only in B.Tech but many science related courses. Laser's play a vital role in the electromagnetic spectrum and the basic concept of emission. The PDF starts with simple definition of laser leaning towards emissions. Construction of lasers such as Ruby Laser, He-Ne (Helium Neon) Laser, Semi Conductor Laser with their construction, working principle to advantages and disadvantages. Einsteins Coefficients is also clearly described.
Sree Thej
CIRCULAR MOTION .QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF CIRCULAR MOTION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
UMESH JAWARE
STATIONARY WAVES .QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF STATIONARY WAVES TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF STATIONARY WAVES ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
ELASTICITY.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF ELASTICITY TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF ELASTICITY ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
GRAVITATION.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF GRAVITATION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF GRAITATION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
ROTATIONAL MOTION .QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF ROTATIONAL MOTON TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
OSCILLATION.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF OSCILLATION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF OSCILLATION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
SURFACE TENSION.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF SURFACE TENSION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF SURFACE TENSION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
WAVE MOTION.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF WAVE MOTION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF WAVE MOTION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
WAVE MOTION.QUICK REVISION.
THIS CLIP CONTAIN SHORT NOTES OF WAVE MOTION TOPIC . IN THIS ALL TOPICS OF WAVE MOTION ARE ARRANGE PROPERLY,SO EASY FOR LEARNING. BEST FOR QUICK REVISION.SPECIALY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR IIT JEE.AT LAST STAGE OF EXAMS STUDENTS CAN REVISE QUICKLY THROUGH THIS.THIS NOTES WERE MAKE DURING MY CLASS 11TH AND 12TH. I USED IT BEFORE EXAM TO REVISE ALL IMPORTANT FORMULE.IT WAS VERY HELPFULL FOR ME .SOME TIMES WE CAN'T READ ALL NOTES OF TOPICS .WE HAVE TO JUST OVERVIEW THE FORMULAS AND BASIC CONCEPT,WHICH CAN BE REVISE THROUGH THIS NOTES.
Comparing and contrasting the theory of liberation in the Sankhya school of philosophy and the Yoga school of philosophy.
Both the Sankhya school of philosophy and the Yoga school of philosophy have been credited with having similar views on their metaphysics, their theory of knowledge, their theory of liberation etc. Thus these two schools have often been addressed together as the Sankhya-Yogas. Even though both these schools have similar views on the theory of liberation, there are still a few differences that separate these two schools in that area. In this essay, I will attempt to compare and contrast the views of these two schools on liberation in order to find out and properly frame the similarities and the differences that exist. I would also be taking into account the views put forth by Satishchandra Chatterjee and Dhereendramohan Datta, Andrew Nicholson, and Christopher Bartley and their relevant texts. For both the Sankhya and the Yoga school of philosophy, liberation can only be achieved by the cessation of all pain and suffering. Liberation can be compared to detachment, which is said to be “self-mastery on the part of one who no longer thirsts for perceptible objects or any of the transitory goals promised by the Scriptures.” (Bartley 2011, p. 88) According to the Sankhya philosophy, we are victims to three kind of pain- adhyatmika, adhibhautika, and adhidaivika. Adhyatmika is due to intra-organic causes such as bodily disorders and mental affections. Adhibhautika is the pain that is caused by nature such as men, animals etc. Adhidaivika is the pain that is caused by extra-organic supernatural causes such as ghosts and demons. On the other hand, for the Yoga philosophy, “ So long as the mind or the intellect of a man is impure and unsettled, he cannot properly understand anything of philosophy and religion. ( Datta and Chatterjee 1948, p. 337). Thus for the Sankhya, the cause of the pain can arise from both the body and mind while for the Yogas, pain can only arise from the mind. Both the Sankhyas and the Yogas agree that for attaining moksha or liberation the separation of the self from the body is needed and a clear distinction is needed to be made between self and the body, intellect and the mind. This argument is supported by Datta and Chatterjee, who informs us that “ It holds, like the Sankhya and some other Indian systems, that liberation is to be attained through the direct knowledge of the self’s distinction from the physical world including our body, mind and the ego ( vivekajnana). ( Datta and Chatterjee 1948, p.337) According to the Sankhyas, the reason that we have to suffer pain is that we do not have the right knowledge of reality and that every reality has a plurality of selves. The self is an “ intelligent principle which does not pose any quality or activity but is a pure consciousness free form the limitations of space, time and causality.” ( Datta and Chatterjee 1948, p. 324) Even the Yoga’s share a similar view of the self as even they think that it is above the physical reality with its spatio-temporal and its cause-effect order. A claim that is put forth by Andrew Nicholson is that the followers of the Sankhya philosophy will have to endure the long duration of jivanmukti, while Yoga philosophers, on the other hand, will not have to endure it and can just bypass it. He has claimed that “The path of knowledge ( jñāna ), offered by the Sāmkhya and Vedānta systems, can lead to meditation with objects and can be efficacious for enlightenment. But the follower of Sāmkhya or Vedānta will have to endure the state of jīvanmukti, as suggested by BS 4.1.15 and Ch. Up. 6.14.2. However, Vis ˙. Pu. 6.7.35 suggests that Yoga can cause immediate release, destroying prārabdha acts and bypassing jīvanmukti altogether. Yoga, according to Vijñānabhiks ˙ u, is the fast track to complete liberation. Although Sāmkhya, Vedānta, and Yoga can all lead to liberation, Yoga is the best of the three solely in terms of its efficiency.” ( Nicholson 2010, p. 116) While Nicholson claims that Yoga is the most efficient way to attaining liberation, Datta and Chatterjee have an opposing view as they claim that “ It requires a long and arduous endeavor to maintain oneself in the state of samadhi and destroy the effects of the different kinds of karma, past, and present. For this, it is necessary to practice yoga with care and devotion for a sufficiently long time” ( Datta and Chatterjee 1948, p. 347). Thus for them, it will take years to attain liberation. Thus we can see that the theory of liberation itself has contradicting views in Indian philosophy. Thus, as a conclusion, we can say that the Sankhya lays greater stress on discriminative knowledge as the means of attaining liberation while on the other hand, the Yoga lays greater stress on practical methods for self-purification and concentration in order to attain moksa. REFERENCES- Chatterjee, Satishchandra and Dheerendramohan Datta. 1948. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. University of Calcutta: Calcutta Bartley, Christopher. 2011. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Continuum International Publishing Group: London Nicholson, J. Andrew. 2010. Unifying Hinduism. Colombia University Press: New York.
Kartik Mathur
Analysing the historical misinterpretation of Lycurgus of Sparta, in relation to Stoic Ethics
Philosophy is a discipline that is spread across the world, with each country having their own philosophies. Even though that may be the case, there is still a hegemonic presence attached to the philosophies of Greece. Greek philosophy has a certain place in history itself, as most of the philosophical doctrines that have emerged out of it have been used as foundations for modern philosophies. Due to this, there is a vast existent discourse available on Greek philosophy. There are only a few of those texts which will be mentioned in this paper. Due to such extensive research being done on this epoch, it is only natural that there may be some problems and critique that must have arisen out of ancient and medieval Greek philosophy. For the sake of brevity, only one such problem will be discussed. The main text that will be used as a foundation for this paper is Frederick Copleston’s- A History of Philosophy. The reasons behind choosing this particular text will now be explained. There are two major reasons why Copleston’s text has been chosen. The first being that he has started the book by analysing the ancient Greek philosophers starting from the Milesian school, which is from 600 BC. The second reason behind this text being chosen is due to the quote in his book- “ The first point to be stressed is the need for seeing any philosophical system in its historical setting and connections. This point has already been mentioned and does not require further elaboration: it should be obvious that we can only grasp adequately the state of mind of a given philosopher and the raison d' etre of his philosophy if we have first apprehended its historical point de depart.” ( Copleston 1993, p.8) These two points will be further elaborated on in this essay. The problem that will be addressed in this essay will be related to Lycurgus, who was a Spartan philosopher who lived around 800 BC. The argument posed here is that he is the original founder and implementer of the Stoic Ethics. According to history, it was Zeno who was supposed to have implemented these ethics. This essay is an attempt to disprove that. The entire paper is divided into three sections. The first section will includes why and how the problem arose in the first place. This section also in some ways criticizes the works of both Plato and Socrates. The second section is an attempt to prove why Lycurgus should be considered as the main founder of Stoic Ethics. This will include some of my own personal research and also some other texts of authors who have a background in philosophy. The third section is an audacious attempt on how to avoid such problem in the future. Their points will be an analysis taken from the culmination of texts that are being used in this paper. The first section starts by introducing Zeno. He is said to be the original founder of Stoicism around 330 BC. In this paper, the main focal point is on the ethical part of Stoicism. It is also common knowledge that Stoicism has been heavily influenced by the works of Socrates. Here is where the first problem arises. Socrates, in himself, is surrounded by ambiguity regarding his existence, as we get to know most of his texts through the adaptations of Plato. In Greek philosophy, Plato and Socrates are considered to be the most well known philosophers of all time. Thus, it is very common that their texts be used as foundations and be considered as axiomatic for future generations. In this instance, the quotation that was mentioned at the start of the essay will come into place. According to Copleston, each philosophical system should be studied in its historical context. When further analysed, this ‘context’ includes any historical events that may have occurred at the time. As previously mentioned, Stoicism was heavily influenced by Socrates, and he existed around 470-399 BC. Plato, the philosopher who wrote his works, lived around 428 BC to 348 BC. During their time, there was a major civil war in Greece, between 431 BC- 404 BC. This war was called the Peloponnesian War, and it was fought between Sparta and Athens. It is important to note that both Socrates and Plato were Athenians while Lycurgus was a Spartan. When a war takes place between two or more states, it is not only a battle between military prowess, but also a war of ideologies and philosophies. The ethics of the Spartan states were implemented by Lycurgus. Due to the intensity of the war, it is natural that Socrates, who lived through the war, be influenced by it and thus incorporate some of the Spartan ethics and philosophies into his own works. As we have no first hand texts of his, and only adaptations by Plato, it could be possible that Plato may have understood the ‘borrowed’ philosophies as Socrates’s own, and thus represented it as Socrates’s own work. Due to the hegemonic presence that is associated with philosophers such as Socrates and Plato, it can be assumed that no one would attempt to contradict their works. It should also be noted that Athens at that time was the capital of Greece, and also the philosophical hub of the world. While Sparta, on the other hand, was a heavily miltarized State. So it is natural to make the assumption that the philosophical doctrines that emerged out of Athens would have gained more importance than those doctrines that came out of Sparta. As mentioned at the start of the paper, Frederick Copleston started his book by focusing on the 6th century BC philosophers, such as Thales and Anaximander which were of the Milsean schools. As this is common with most philosophers this method can be interpreted to mean that these authors don’t give the same importance to the philosophesr that existed before 6th century BC. This once again becomes a problem when we remember that Lycurgus was thought to have implemented his philosophies around 800 BC. Thus we can say that the philosophies of 6th century BC philosophers were given much more importance than to those of 8th century philosophers such as Lycurgus. The second section will be an attempt to explain the argument fro the perspective of Lycurgus. He is credited with introducing the Spartan ethics. Their ethics, in a summary, consisted of mainly believing that one should not feel emotion, one must live according to nature and thus not be influenced by outside factors. These in itself are quite similar to those of the Stoic Ethics. The Spartan society was a highly military one, where the sole purpose of the entire society was to create invincible warriors. I will now provide some instances which shows the similarities between the Spartan Ethics and the Stoics Ethics. According to Bertrand Russsel, in Sparta, young boys were taken away at the age of seven from their mothers and families and they were all put in a boarding school where they were trained to be warriors. ( Russell 2004, p. 106) what Russell failed to mention was that this precedure is called the Agoge, which was around for hundreds of years prior to Plato’s birth. Due to such intensive training, it is only natural to assume that the warriors that would emerge out of this training would be hardened men, and would not be susceptible to any outside emotion. It is not only men who were trained to be emotionless. Women in Spartan societies were also meant to show no emotion. for example, as previously mentioned, their children would be taken away at a young age and be trained as a soldier. The mother of the child was not allowed to cry or show any emotion when either the child was taken from her, or if it was reported that the child had died, which was a common occurence in the training camps. Such determination was shown my both the genders hundreds of years prior to the official formation for the stoic school of philosophy. another important point that needs to be mentioned is that no Spartan was allowed to leave the state, except for war, and likewise, no foreigner was allowed to enter Sparta. Thus it is highly unlikely that there would be any other sources other than Socrates who would have written about the Spartan society, as no common man was allowed to come and go as he pleased. According to Anthony Kenny, “ Moreover, the Stoics believed that it was praiseworthy to die for one’s country: but is not that preferring an outer circle to an inner one?” ( Kenny 2004, p.282) This goes along with the Spartan ethics that one should always be ready to die for one’s country. Russell makes a very similar comment on the spartans- “The sole purpose of a Spartan citizen was war, to which he was trained from birth” ( Russell 2004, p.100). here we can see the stark similarity between the ethics of both the stoics and the Spartans. it should also be noted that these two quotations have benen taken from two different authors, thus making it clear that they may not share the same opinion. Due to the above arguments, we can make the conclusion that Lycurgus was the original founder of the Stoics Ethics, and due to some misunderstanding, they were interpreted to be the teachings of Socrates and Zeno. The third and the last section will focuses on the possible solutions that can be made to avoid such a problem in history. One way in which such a critique can be avoided is by not considering Socrates and Plato and their works as axiomatic. That is because if we do consider them as superior to others, then we may form a biased opinion of the other philosophical doctrines coming out of minor areas within Greece such as the afore mentioned Sparta. Their hegemonic presence might be considered as permanent in Greek philosophy, as there are already certain periods named after them, such as the pre-Socratic era. Thus, in order to avoid such a problem in the future, one must study these philosophical doctrines with an open mind and an unbiased opinion. The second way in which one might improve their methodologies is by taking into consideration some of the historical events that may have occurred during the time of study. Such a problem can be identified in this paper, where the Pelopponesian War has played a huge part in determining the philosophy and ethics of a particular state. But due to those wars being considered as a part of history and nothing to do with philosophy, the historical events are often overlooked. If we can avoid these in the future, many such philosophies may emerge to be false, or atleast be influenced by some other historical event. Another reason why this might be helpful is so that more than one city-state in Greece might be considered as being philosophically explorative, and not only Athens. As a concluding remark, it is fair to say that the epoch of ancient and medieval Greek philosophy can be considered to be the most famous and popular philosophical period as compared to the rest. This is due to the doctrines emerging from them and due to the superior presence of Plato and Aristotle. The arguments posed in this paper sought to address only one major problem, with that being giving an equal historical representation to each philosophy within its historical context. The arguments that were posed in this paper were original and while many texts were used in this paper, all of them show the same problem, which is that they are not considering the philosophies of previous generations prior to 600 BC. BIBLIOGRAPHY Copleston, Frederick. 1993. A Hisotry of Philosphy. New York: Doubleday Kenny, Anthony. 2004. Ancient Philosphy. New York: Claredon Press Bertrand, Russel. 2004. History of Western Philosophy. London