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BIODIVERSITY AND BIOTIC RESOURCES
Introduction Definition Genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity Value of biodiversity -consumptive use, productive value, social, ethical, aesthetic and optional values India as a mega biodiversity nation Hot spots of biodiversity Field visit Threats to biodiversity- habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts Conservation of biodiversity – In situ and ex situ conservation Introduction: Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversity, represent the sum total of various life forms such as unicellular fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and multi cellular organisms such as plants, fishes, and mammals at various biological levels including gens, habitats, and ecosystem. The role of animals in the biotic environment is very crucial. They act as a food. Some of them are used as a mode of transport, agriculture operations
Soumya Somayajula
Software Process Models
Process models prescribe a distinct set of activities, actions, tasks, milestones, and work products required to engineer high quality software. Process models are not perfect, but provide roadmap for software engineering work. Software models provide stability, control, and organization to a process that if not managed can easily get out of control. Software process models are adapted to meet the needs of software engineers and managers for a specific project.
Microprocessor and Microcontroller
Essence of the subject • The microprocessor is the heart of the computer and it is a hardware component. Hence we being Electronics engineers, we need to study this subject. This is the essence of the subject. • Various applications of microprocessor are – Educational field, Medical field, scientific labs, Banking sector etc. Introduction to Microprocessors • Intel introduced it’s 4 bit microprocessor 4004 in 1971 and it’s 8 bit microprocessor 8008 in 1972 • These microprocessors could not survive as general purpose microprocessors because of their design and performance limitations. • Then the launch of a first general purpose 8 bit microprocessor 8080 in 1974 by Intel is considered to be the first major stepping stone towards the development of advanced microprocessors.
Introduction to Database Management System
Data Vs Information, Data base System Applications, data base System vs file System, View of Data, Data Abstraction, Instances and Schemas, data Models – the ER Model – Relational Model – Other Models, Database Languages – DDL – DML, database Access for applications Programs, data base Users and Administrator, Transaction Management, data base System Structure – Storage Manager – the Query Processor. Data base design and ER diagrams – Entities, Attributes and Entity sets – Relationships and Relationship sets – Additional features of ER Model – Concept Design with the ER Model –Data Modeling checklist.
Data COmmunications and Networking
Data – refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Communication – process of exchanging information “Data Communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium.” For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Basics of Networking and Data Communication
A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one location to another. Hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one point of the network to another. Software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we expect from a network. Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another. - An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model - First introduced in late 1970s. - It is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. - It is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. - It consists of seven ordered, separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network. - Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. - Within a single machine, Layer 3 uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. - Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. - This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called protocols. - The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
Physical Layer and Media
Analog and Digital Periodic Analog Signals Digital Signals Transmission Impairment Data Rate Limits Performance To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values. Digital data have discrete states and take on discrete values. Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
Introduction to Digital Transmission
Digital-to-Digital Conversion Analog-to-Digital Conversion Transmission Mode Involves three techniques: Line coding (always needed), block coding, and scrambling Line coding: the process of converting digital data to digital signals Data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s: bps Signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s: baud Data rate = bit rate, signal rate = pulse rate, modulation rate, baud rate S = c x N x 1/r, where N is the date rate; c is the case factor, S is the number of signal elements; r is the number of data elements carried by each signal element Although the actual bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite, the effective bandwidth is finite The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate) The minimum bandwidth: Bmin = c x N x 1/r The maximum data rate: Nmax = 1/c x B x r
Analog and Digital Transmission
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Analog-to-Analog Conversion Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital data Data element versus signal element Data rate (bit rate) versus signal rate (baud rate) S = N x 1/r baud S (signal rate), N (data rate), r (number of data element in one signal element) Bit rate: bits per second (in bps) Baud rate: signal elements per second (in baud) Bit rate baud rate Carrier signal (carrier frequency) High-frequency signal used to modulate the information Modulated signal: information modulated by the carrier signal
INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIONAL MODEL
INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIONAL MODEL The main construct for representing data in the relational model is a relation A relation consists of a relation schema and a relation instance The schema specifies the relation's name, the name of each field (or column, or attribute), and the type of each field Example: Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string, age: integer, gpa: real) The degree, also called arity, of a relation is the number of fields The cardinality of a relation instance is the number of tuples in it In Figure 3.1, the degree of the relation (the number of columns) is five, and the cardinality of this instance is six A relational database is a collection of relations with distinct relation names The relational database schema is the collection of schemas for the relations in the database
Register Transfer Language and Microoperations
Register Transfer Language Register Transfer Bus and Memory Transfers Arithmetic Microoperations Logic Microoperations Shift Microoperations Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit Instruction codes Computer Registers Computer Instructions Instruction Cycle Memory-Reference Instructions Input-Output and Interrupt Stack Organization Instruction Formats Addressing Modes Data Transfer and Manipulation Program Control Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
Basics of Computer Organisation
Computer Organization It describes the function and design of the various units of digital computers that store and process information. It also deals with the units of computer that receive information from external sources and send computed results to external destinations. Digital computer : It is a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts digitized input information, processes it according to a list of internally stored instructions, and produces the resulting output information. (1) Personal computer : It is the most common form of desktop computers. Desk top computers have processing and storage units, visual display and audio output units, and a keyboard that can all be located easily on a home or office desk. The storage media include hard disks, CD-ROMs and diskettes. Portable notebook computers are a compact version of the personal computers with all of these components packaged into single unit the size of a thin briefcase.